Adam Smith essays

Adam Smith essays Adam Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. His exact date of his birth is unknown but he was baptized on June 5, 1723. At the age of fifteen, Smith began attending Glasgow University where he studied moral philosophy. In 1748 he began giving lectures in Edinburgh where he discussed rhetoric and later he began to discuss the economic philosophy of the simple system of natural liberty which he later proclaimed in his Inquiry into Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. In 1751, Smith was appointed professor of logic at Glasgow university, transferring in 1752 to the chair of moral philosophy. His lectures covered the field of ethics, rhetoric, jurisprudence and political economy. In 1759 he published his Theory of Moral Sentiments, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was about those standards of ethical conduct that hold society together, with emphasis on the general harmony of human motives. Smith moved to London in 1776, where he published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, which examined in detail the consequences of economic freedom. It covered such concepts as the role of self-interest, the division of labor, the function of markets, and the international implications of a laissez-faire economy. The Wealth of Nations established economics as an autonomous subject and, launched the economic doctrine of free enterprise. In the western world, it is the most influential book on the subject. When the book, which has become a classic manifesto against mercantilism, appeared in 1776, there was a strong sentiment for free trade in both Britain and America. This new feeling had been born out of the economic hardships and poverty caused by the war but the British public and parliament still clung to mercantilism for many years to come. Smith laid the intellectual framework that explained the free market and still holds true today. He is most often rec ...

The Art of Jim Crow essays

The Art of Jim Crow essays The "veil" that Du Bois frequently refers to is the "veil" of race. Du Bois pictures this "veil" as the stereotypes and prejudices that stand between African-Americans and their full participation in what we might call the "American dream." Not only does the "veil" stand between the African-American and his economic success; it also prevents the African-American from achieving a full and satisfactory sense of identity in America. The vivid imagery of the scenes painted by Du Bois that captured his conflicting feelings about progress is that Jim Crow itself meant Negro Laws. After the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln, these ignoramus laws were passed after the Civil War to institute the denial of Civil Rights of the African-America people. The entire concept of the Jim Crow Laws was established to continue the reign of old Slavery Laws that had been abolished previously. These laws primarily existed in the south part of the United States. The Jim Crow Laws were so unconstitutional due to the fact of the violation of civil rights. The Federal Government with the injunction of the Civil Rights Act in 1866 had to be revised. The law in itself did not define or mention race or color. This proved to be a major loophole for four entire years. Soon after the Civil Rights Act the government established the Freedmans Bureau to handle the affairs of the reconstruction of the Southern States. Major Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, founder of Howard University served as commissioner of the Bureau until 1874. The Bureau had additional objective was to d istribute evenly the abandon lands in the south. The article called that every freedman was to receive forty acres and a mule. The bureau conducted workshops to help the newly freed slave adjust to their new environments with financial independence. The Bureau also helped build schools and hire new teachers. W.E. Du Bois became a teacher for the great s ...

Managing Earth's Natural Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managing Earth's Natural Resources - Essay Example Being a farmer, and hardworking one at that, I strongly oppose any arrangements that would subject Callicoon to hydraulic fracturing. Jack, I know that leasing land over to extraction companies seems logical. The money is satisfactory, and one gets to retain ownership of the land. Lots of promises got made by these companies concerning how they intend to harness this resource that is the natural gas. However, the very process of fracking in itself is harmful to the natural ecosystem regardless of whatever means gets used in harvesting (Zelman 2012). Hydraulic fracturing refers to a process that creates fractures in the rocks due to the action of pressurized fluid. The process of fracking gets done after a well gets drilled and fitted with steel pipes targeting the areas that hold gas or oil. When the fracturing fluid gets injected in the well, it flows along the perforations into the target zones. The pressure created through injection of the liquid fractures the formation. Upon frac turing, fluid injection stops and the fracturing fluid flow back to the surface. Materials like ceramic beads and sand which got injected together with the fracture fluid mixture remains in the fracture space to keep the fracture open (Zelman 2012). Hydraulic fracturing uses enormous volumes of water. ... The harvesting of large volumes of water for hydraulic fracturing has negative ecological impacts in the water ecosystem. Fracking in Marcellus Shale used up 650 million gallons each year. Apart from drying up of water aquifers, water harvesting affects aquatic flora and fauna and leads to loss of biodiversity. The transportation of this water gets done by trucks that cause localized air quality and destroys the roads (Zelman 2012). A wide array of chemicals gets used together with water in hydraulic fracturing. The amount of chemicals used when millions of gallons of water gets used is enormous. In other words, the amount of chemicals per hydraulic fracturing is substantial. For instance, fracking that uses up four million gallons requires up to 330 tons of chemicals. The department of Environmental Conservation put up a list of additives and chemicals used for fracturing in Marcellus Shale. These chemicals are toxic to both wildlife and people, some of which cause cancer. These sub stances include petroleum distillates such as toluene, naphthalene and ethylbenzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, ethylene glycol, sodium hydroxide, formaldehyde, glycol ether and hydrochloric acid. The Environmental Working Group has stated that petroleum distillates like kerosene contain benzene, a well known carcinogen which gets toxic in water in quantities that exceed five parts per billion. Volatile organic compounds such as 1, 2- Dichloroethane that are found in fracturing fluid flow back exceed drinking water standards. Flow back samples obtained from Pennsylvania had 10 times the maximum amount of 1, 2- Dichloroethane that should be in drinking water (Zelman 2012). Jack, leasing land to these exploration companies will lead to the reduction of water and air quality.

False Claims Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

False Claims - Coursework Example New York Times reports indicate that 34 percent of American households possessed guns in 2012. They claim that compared to 32 percent of gun ownership in 2010, the rate had substantially declined. The GSS Survey data that New York Times relied on contradicts many other surveys conducted by prominent firms such as Gallup. Gallup reported 47 percent gun ownership in October 2011. The percentages reported by Gallup were inconsistent with the trend of decline in gun ownership as outlined by New York Times. New York Times data also failed to account for the percentage of gun ownership in 2011(Gebeloff & Tavernise, 2013). Omission of data shows unreliability in New York Times report on gun ownership in America. Data from ABC news and Washington post-poll also shows inconsistency of New York Times data. ABC News reports indicate that gun ownership among American households holds at 43 percent that is higher than the 37 percent reported by the New York Times. Gebeloff, R. & Tavernise, S. (2013, March 9). Share of Homes with Guns Shows 4-Decade Decline. The New York Times. Retrieved October 10, 2014 from, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/10/us/rate-of-gun-ownership-is-down-survey-shows.html?hp&_r=0 Johnrlott. (2013 November, 19). Problems with Using the General Social Survey to Measure Gun Ownership. Crime Prevention Research Center. Retrieved October 10, 2014 from,

CASE STUDIES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CASE STUDIES - Essay Example gement and the board of directors is 100% male, since Panera is offering a healthier option for food, they could be helped by having female and minority members of the board as well as in the management team to provide a better corporate image. 3. Opening restaurants in other countries with an aggressive growth strategy would require a flood of marketing both in terms of awareness of healthy food (where such awareness is not already present) and establishing their brand identity. 4. The restaurant I went to seemed too dark and gloomy. Even though there were colorful signs at plenty of places, the lack of light made an overall depressing setting. I would suggest that they make use of natural light in the interior and bring the interiors with their unique selling point of healthy food and healthy lifestyles. 1. From the case, it seems obvious that the key competency required would be excellent communications skills which can get the point across the table as well as across the border. Secondly, cultural competency and an ability to work with peoples of different cultures are also important. Finally, since a culture may not be as socially advanced, it could be towards the benefit of the company to use a male representative instead of a female if both of them are equally suited for the job at hand. 2. The only cost of not understanding diversity is profit, which is something no company can afford to lose. If the plant had been developed and run with an understanding of diversity, the communication problems and the cultural clashes could certainly be minimized and the lost production time could have been turned into profitable output. 3. The first problem she faced was stereotyping, just because she was Mexican American; it was assumed that she could work with Mexicans better than anyone else. The second problem was the cultural gap with the Mexicans and communication issues with the Americans. She also faced problems with Mexican men accepting her as the

Is there evidence to suggest that CBT interventions work

Is there evidence to suggest that CBT interventions work This evaluative report critically reviews research based evidence on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) interventions in the context of Criminal Justice. This involves evaluation of a number of studies which are part of the so-called What Works? agenda (McGuire, 2005) which aims to reduce reoffending and support probation supervision. It is found that the evidence for CBT is supportive of its use but that its effectiveness can be dependent on several factors such as relationship between the probationer and worker, while CBT programmes may mask the real life difficulties which probationers experience. Keywords Probation, offender, desistance, social context, research, what works, evidence-based practice Introduction This evaluative report critically reviews research based evidence on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) interventions in the context of Criminal Justice. The principle of CBT as an intervention is to change the offenders attitudes and behaviour by using cognitive behavioural techniques. These methods focus on considering and changing thinking in order to avoid patterns of behaviour that can lead to re-offending (Andrews, 1995). I am currently a Criminal Justice worker and have chosen the role of CBT as a practice intervention in probation for several reasons. The longstanding approach to criminal behaviour across criminal justice systems has been imposition via the courts of punishment such as financial penalty or loss of liberty. Whilst this delivers retribution, punishment does not necessarily reduce levels of crime (Hollin, 2002) and an alternative is offender rehabilitation for which there is room for development. This approach seeks to bring about individual change in the offender and to reduce the likliehood of committing further crimes. Studies reviewed are part of the so-called What Works? research agenda which aims to investigate how to reduce reoffending and support probation supervision. The What Works approach to offender rehabilitation has been written about since the 1980s and outcome evaluations indicate that this approach may have a small but positive effect in reducing reoffending (McGuire and Priestley, 1995). The What Works research literature indicates that cognitive behavioural interventions produce the greatest effect (Vennard, Hedderman and Sugg, 1997; Hollin, 1999; Cooke and Philip, 2000; Redondo, Sanchez-Meca and Garrido, 1999). In policy terms, probation in Scotland differs greatly from that in England and Wales. This has been due to political, legislative and cultural changes which have occurred in the last thirty years and more recently in 1991, the introduction of 100% funding and National Objectives and Standards (NOS). In light of these issues/factors, the specific question guiding the search for literature is Is there evidence to suggest that CBT interventions work in probationary practice? The search for evidence to address this question involved the use of databases ASSIA, Planex Cambridge and Discover. Specific journal databases were also consulted using word searches. These included The Howard Journal, Probation Journal, Criminology and Criminal Justice Journal and British Journal of Social Work. This search yielded the most appropriate and relevant research studies pertinent to the question. Literature Review This section critically reviews 6 studies. One reports on a Scottish study within which service users considered their ideal model of the social worker (Barry, 2000). Three studies were qualitative (Rex, 1999; McNeill, 2000; and McCulloch, 2005) while the remaining two were reviews of literature (Vanstone, 2000; and Stanley, 2009). The evidence is reviewed under several key themes. What contributes to the effectiveness of CBT? As an approach to working with offenders, cognitive behavioural modification presumes that people who offend are shaped by their environment and have failed to acquire certain cognitive skills or have learned inappropriate ways of behaving, thinking is impulsive and rigid as opposed to flexible. Cognitive difficulties are learned rather than innate in people who offend. The pursuit of effectiveness in the delivery and development of community based disposals has been observed over the last three decades. Although, there has been progress in what is effective in supporting desistance from crime through researchers, practitioners and government ministers to bring theoretical knowledge to practice research, policy and practice highlights that knowledge and success still remains in development. Recognising the breadth of academic and empirical literature in exploring this subject, the review is deliberately limited and draws on the effectiveness research and desistance literature. Each of the studies describe a brief history of What Works in probation. The premise was that cognitive behavioural programmes would deliver reductions of between 5 and 10 per cent in reoffending. The evidence for this proposition was based largely on American and Canadian research and meta-analyses of relatively small scale studies (Lipsey, 1992). Research studies suggested that not only was prison ineffective in reducing recidivism, but also that welfare approaches to crime reduction was ineffectual, intrusive and repressive (Newburn, 1995: Her Majestys Inspectorate of Probation, 1998). Prior to the introduction of the NOS in the early 1990s, little research into offenders views of supervision had been undertaken prior to the introduction of these Standards, which were informed more by the findings from research into what works from the academic or practitioners point of view than by concern with the under addressed notion of what works from the offenders point of view. However, the what works principles (which inform NOS) are being adopted throughout the various strands of work with offenders. Three of these principles are problematic when it comes to offenders views about supervision which are: risk classification, criminogenic needs and responsivity. Several of the studies were chosen as part of this literature review as they researched workers and offenders views and it will be argued that a more flexible approach needs to be adopted in relation to these principles before offenders themselves can fully benefit from supervision. With regards to the four studies carried out three involved workers being interviewed through semi-structured interviews (Rex, 1999; McNeill, 2000; and McCulloch, 2005) and one solely with probationers (Barry, 2000). Rex and McCullochs studies also involved semi-structured interviews with probationers as well as with workers. The two reviews of literature discuss what research has already been done. The research explored the characteristics of probationers on supervision, documented the services of such supervision in meeting offenders needs and reducing the risk of further offending. In order to promote analytic generalisability a random sample was constructed (Robson, 1993, pp.138-139) to enable proportionate representation in terms of gender, age and geography and two of the studies specified that all the respondents were white. The studies varied in size: six workers and 6 probationers (McCulloch, 2005), twelve workers (McNeill, 2000), sixty-five probationers (Barry, 2000) and sixty probationers and twenty-one workers (Rex, 1999). The two reviews of literature looked at numerous national studies. This allowed the writer to have a wide and varied consensus of effectiveness outcomes. Offenders Perspective Across all of the studies, the majority of probationers understood the purpose of probation and their officers were seeking, through a variety of means, to reduce the likliehood of re-offending. Few probationers regarded probation as purely a monitoring exercise, although the majority view was to keep them from offending over half expected their social workers to be proactive in helping them to address their problems and for probation to be more constructive than punishing. In relation to those who wanted help with problems or issues, many inferred that not re-offending was a precondition to receiving such help. (Rex, 1999; Barry, 2000; and McCulloch, 2005). There was a general consensus that social workers could not stop people from offending but could only help to minimize the risks through support of a more tangible and constructive nature. Even for those respondents who considered re-offending to be a possibility, there was a majority view that it was up to the individual to refrain from future offending. However, probationers attributed changes in their behaviour to their supervisory experiences was the active and participatory nature of those experiences which was one of the features of effective community programmes previously identified by McGuire (1995). Probationers seemed aware of the efforts required to sustain a decision to stop offending and were more willing to embark where they felt a commitment to and positively engaged in the supervisory relationship. The research carried out is conflicting with regards to personal engagement by probation officers. Over 3/4 of probationers referred to the need for probation officers to demonstrate empathy, and 1/2 reported that their supervisors ability to listen, show interest and understanding enabled them to open up. Yet, 1/2 also said that they appreciated more formal aspects of the supervisory relationship, 1/3 found a certain amount of distance helpful and 1/2 wanted to be treated with respect in the sense of not being judged or patronised. In showing respect, experience and knowledge probationers viewed their probation officer as taking them seriously, were able to disclose sensitive information and took on board what their probation officers said. Nearly 1/2 of respondents reported that the quality of the relationship with their social worker would not affect their success or failure within the order, however, an equal number felt that a poor or negative relationship with their social worker could have had an impact of their ability to complete their order successfully. There were no significant differences in toleration levels between young and adult offenders. The majority stated that if they had not got on well with their social worker, they would not have turned up for appointments or co-operated in other ways and would have had tokenistic involvement. The majority of probation respondents stressed the need to get to know the individual, background, interests, problems and/or issues and aspirations to be able to actively help resolve any difficulties. The most common thread in the studies reviewed was finding out what the problems were in an attempt to get to the root cause of the offending. Most of the respondents saw their offending behaviour as a consequence of other social or personal difficulties and that the cause itself e.g. unemployment was addressed as opposed to just the effects (offending behaviour). Offending behaviour is prominent on the minds of people who have been on community based supervision and who are asked about their views about its effectiveness, and this has been demonstrated in the studies where offenders views of supervision has been sought. However, there are other problems which equally, or more importantly, need to change through social work support which must come from the offenders themselves. Workers perspective Workers who were interviewed both individually and in groups (Rex, 1999; McNeill, 2000; and McCulloch, 2005) were offered a range of potential measures of effectiveness and rate them accordingly to which they considered most relevant in judging effectiveness in probation cases. These measures were selected to encompass a wide range of possibilities based on effectiveness agenda, probation policy and literature and reflect value bases for probation (Nellis, 1995). Some workers expressed that they saw managers as concerned only with efficiency (numbers game), sentencers as sometimes caring, especially when vulnerability had been identified, policy makers as interested in value for money, the public protection agenda, reduced offending and the desire to avoid adverse publicity. In general workers identified success with outcomes such as supervision action plans fully and successfully implemented, achieving reduction or cessation in offending by tackling underlying needs and/or problems and improvements. (Rex, 1999; McNeil, 2000; Vanstone, 2000; McCulloch, 2005). Outcome measures such as reducing reoffending, changing attitudes, increasing victim empathy and reducing probationers needs were more important to Scottish workers than order compliance in contrast to an earlier study undertaken by Humphrey and Pease (1992) however, these findings have to be treated with caution, given the small scale of the samples and range of scores for each possible measure shows a lack of consensus amongst workers. There was dissatisfaction with forms of monitoring which, in the past, had focused on quantitative measures which was also indentified in Humphrey and Peases (1992) study. As discussed earlier, most probationers saw their offending behaviour as a consequence of other social or personal difficulties and this was also recognised by workers and several of the studies provide a clear rationale for attending to the broader social contexts in which offenders live and change. The studies underline the inter-relationship between these key contexts and the need for workers to support the complex process of desistance by addressing all of these areas (McNeill, 2000; Rex, 1999). It is also suggested that there is a reticence amongst offence focused probation managers and staff to directly address family related obstacles, social and environmental factors or other underlying issues (McNeill, 2000; Barry, 2000; McCulloch; 2005). Rex (1999) identifies the relational element of supervision and the importance of probationers feeling valued and engaged in the supervision process although most probationers valued guidance and advice on how they might resolve social and personal problems rather than direct practical assistance. In contrast, Barry (2000) interpreted focus on probationers social problems as a weakness as this is seen to reflect a welfare as opposed to an offence focussed approach to intervention. Although workers believed that probation should address social problems which mirrored that of probationers, a minority expressed ambivalence on this issue relating it to organisational pressures, challenges of addressing social problems and a more robust view of what probation was about (McNeill, 2000; McCulloch, 2005). This view corresponds with the current professional climate of narrow targets, high caseloads and changing professional values and this is neither surprising or difficult to defend. However, in light of what probationers identify as important in desisting from crime it poses a problem if probation hopes to demonstrate effectiveness in assisting probationers to achieve and sustain desistance from offending. Methods used to address probationers social problems generally reflect the findings from wider probation research which identify the use of talking methods, referrals to other agencies and direct support as the most common methods to address probationers problems (Rex, 2009; McCulloch, 2005). What seemed evident from all of the studies was a construction of effectiveness which, while aiming for both offence and need-related outcomes, lays significance on both process and progress. What Works and Practice The supervision of offenders is increasingly adopting a groupwork approach using predominantly cognitive behavioural methods which are seen to effectively reducing offending behaviour. The appeal is based on research into North American groupwork programmes (Lipsey, 1992). This in turn informed the guiding principles of NOS. It can be argued that groupwork programmes often operate in a vacuum and ignores the wider social problems affecting offenders and does not differentiate between individual group members risk levels and needs. However, not all offenders have any or similar, problems other than their offending behaviour and even the causes and consequences of, and future risk associated with, that behaviour can be interpreted differently between offenders. Community supervision devoid of a wider focus could be viewed as a component of change from assimilation and incorporation to separation and exclusion and this criticism is aimed more at the implementers than the authors of the model who do stress the importance of addressing broader structural problems (Young, 1998 cited in Vanstone, 2000). Changes in the way that probation officers are trained have increased fears about de-professionalisation and cognitive behavioural programmes equally are seen to contribute to the degeneration of the role into the application of techniques devised by someone else (Pitts, 1992 cited in Vanstone, 2000) although it could be argued that this contributes to a form of professionalism already missing. This practice could also undermine anti-discriminatory practice as it reduces sensitivity to the needs of women and ethnic minorities. Similar to other community supervision initiatives, the development of these programmes has only taken into account the needs of men and not those of women. Therefore, an awareness of what should change should be taken into account to ensure thoughtful and reflective diversity. Overall, the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural programmes is based on completion effects. Programmes are long and complex with rules about participants dropping in and restarting and this in theory, means that only the full programme will be effective in bringing about cognitive and behavioural change. In contrast, those who do not complete the full programme are less likely to change. The only review that specifically addressed group work programmes was Stanley (2009) and he reviewed other reviews (undertaken in England and Wales) to come to his conclusions. He judged that there was positive conclusions for cognitive behaviour programmes and drug treatment to reduce re-offending but there was weak evidence for the effectiveness of domestic abuse programmes, employment and basic skills training, intensive supervision and unpaid work and they were unlikely to have a positive effect on re-offending. For four types of intervention the National Audit Office (NAO) judged, there was i nsufficient evidence to suggest that although there might be a positive impact the evidence was not strong enough , mainly due to the low quality of research to show or validate strong positive effects (Davis et al., 2008) A main piece, although flawed, evidence is an analysis by National Offender Management Systems Research Development and Statistics Directorate (NOMS RDS) of outcomes of predicted and actual reconviction rates for accredited programmes by the probation service in 2004 (Hollis, 2007). This was based on 25, 255 cases but 6,000 had to be excluded due to poor quality data. It would be fair to say, that there was bias (although not reported) within the analysis as both offender compliance and quality of programme delivery are positive factors the bias in the selection was towards successful programmes and outcomes. There was also no comparison group and this was a major weakness in the report. The report compared actual with predicted reconvictions for offenders engaged in the accredited programmes. It is possible that the amount of cases sentenced to accredited programmes but failed to start were not recorded and the report understates the rate of dropout. Only 40 per cent completed the programme which is nearly 1/2 of the target of 70 per cent set in the original What Works strategy but those who completed were considerably less likely to re-offend than expected and did better than those who did not complete. Allowing for the biases, this looks a positive result and demonstrates the impact and effectiveness of accredited programmes. However, not all programmes were equally successful such as Domestic Violence programmes which in general failed to show a significant reduction in reconviction. Conversely, anger management, sex offender and general offending behaviour programmes showed in excess of 10 per cent reduction in reconviction of cases analysed. There is an assumed opposition between What Works and individual work with offenders. Work by Chapman and Hough (1998) placed cognitive behavioural programmes within the context of desistance and individual casework. The use of targets could be seen to undermine as an unintended consequence as it has led to an emphasis on completing the group element in programmes at the expense of the quality of engagement with individual offenders. Conclusion The findings of these studies confirm a considerable amount of evidence from both desistance and effectiveness literature about the circumstances offenders may be encouraged to cease re-offending. A recurring theme to emerge from probationers accounts is the difficulty sustaining a life free from crime. This explains why the professional agenda in addressing offending behaviour and minimizing risk needs to be balanced with the offenders agenda of addressing practical concerns. Equally important is the need to develop a close and trusting relationship between the service user and worker as is possible within the continual shift of Criminal Justice policy. If this relationship is not accepted as influential and the offenders own agenda recognised, then social work supervision could appear to service users to be alienating and irrelevant and consequently open to criticism, non-cooperation and failure. One major flaw of the What Works agenda is the narrowing of practice in cognitive behavioural approaches and the limited utility of standardised programmes with minority groups of offenders. There is an assumption that female and non-white offenders are fitted into programmes that have been demonstrated to be effective with white males. It is increasingly evident that What Works operationalised through accredited programmes is not the only or entire solution and the challenge is to develop the strengths that are there, build on new and diverse understanding of offenders and link these to the literature on intervention effects to enhance knowledge of what works when, for whom and under what circumstances. Appendix The search for evidence to address this question involved the use of databases ASSIA, Planex Cambridge and Discover. Specific journal databases were also consulted using word searches. These included The Howard Journal, Probation Journal, Criminology and Criminal Justice Journal and British Journal of Social Work. This search yielded the most appropriate and relevant research studies pertinent to the question. Paper Aims Methods used to collect data Findings Relevance of evidence to answering search question Rex, S (1999) Desistance from Offending: Experiences of Probation. The Howard Journal, 38:4, pp.266-383 To make connections between two different research fields: the What Works? literature on the effectiveness of community programmes in bringing about a reduction in reoffending; and the criminal careers literature, the discussion of the wider social processes by which people themselves come to stop offending. Qualitative Semi-structured interviews with a group of probationers. Reports on the extent to which probationers who were interviewed linked their experiences to a reduction in their offending and considers the implications for how probation officers might be able to motivate and assist moves towards law-abiding conduct. Examines desistance from the point of view of a group of probationers and their supervisors. McNeill, F (2000) Defining Effective Probation: Frontline Perspectives. The Howard Journal, 39:4, pp. 382-397 The research study attempted to explore workers definitions of effective probation. Qualitative semi-structured individual and group interviews. Evidence of considerable diversity of opinion. Generally workers preferred to measure effectiveness in terms. Cautious optimism about the capacity, opportunity and motivation of criminal justice social workers to rise to the challenge that the effectiveness agenda represents. Barry, M. (2000) The Mentor/Monitor Debates in Criminal Justice: What Works for Offenders. British Journal of Social Work, 30, pp.575-595 Views from probationers and ex-prisoners about social work supervision in England, Scotland and Wales. Literature Review drawing on a range of studies from last five years. Robinson, G (2001) Power, Knowledge and What Works in Probation. The Howard Journal, 40: 3, pp.235-254 To examine the To To examine the implications of what works in the context of probation, both at the level of professional practice and the broader level of the power base as a whole McCulloch, T (2005) Probation, Social Context and Desistance: Retracing the Relationship A small scale Scottish study which draws on participant perspectives and explore the attention given to probationers social contexts in supporting desistance from crime. Qualitative -small scale research study Stanley, S (2009) What Works in 2009: Progress or Stagnation? Probation Journal, 56: 2, pp153 Reviews evidence produced on the effectiveness of evidence-based interventions (What Works) and in particular cognitive behavioural programmes.

Universal Microcontroller (Mcu) Trainer

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND ITS BACKGROUND This section begins with a discussion of the role and importance of Microcontroller in everyday life. As we all know, Microcontrollers are considered as a major discovery in terms of science and technology. Just like the other major advances, it can control system and devices which can make people’s lives better and easier. Based on â€Å"The Microcontroller Idea Book† by Jan Axelson, Microcontroller is a computer-on-a-chip, or a single chip computer.It is said to be a single-chip computer because it contains memory and Input or Output interfaces in addition to the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Micro, as its name implies, advised that the device is small and Controller, however, tells that the device might be used to control objects as well as processes. Moreover, MCU has been described as an embedded controller, because the Microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices that they con trol.Basically, any product that interacts with its user has a microcontroller inside. The field of Microcontroller (MCU) beginning is due to the development of integrated circuits. It enabled the storing of hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip which was later used in the manufacturing of Microcontrollers. Nowadays, we can find Microcontrollers in almost all kinds of things. Most of those things and devices are well-known to utilize for measuring, storing, calculating, controlling, and displaying of information.One of the largest applications of Microcontroller is in automobiles as it includes at least one MCU for engine control. In test equipment, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages. In a desktop computer, MCU is founded inside keyboards, modems, printers, and other peripherals. Furthermore, products that we are fond of using like cameras, video recorders, c ompact-disk players, and ovens also use Microcontrollers. Background of the StudyMicrocontrollers have only been with us for a few decades but its impact on our lives is intense. Most of the microcontroller parts can be found in all electronic devices; it can be found on products which we use in our home like microwave ovens, alarm clock, washing machines, toys, and stereo equipment. Other common devices such as cash register, weighing scales, typewriters, photocopiers, elevators, industrial automation device, safety system, cars and traffic signals are some examples of microcontroller application.Numerous types of microcontrollers were designed and they quickly became man's invisible companion. It is also regarded as a powerful tool that allows a designer in creating his own design. Some of the crucial influence in the microcontroller development and success are powerful and carefully chosen electronics such as switches, push buttons, sensors, LCD displays, and relays, cheap automa tic devices and its power was widely spread prior to the knowledge in programming.With the necessity of making our MCU experience learning more enjoyable and helping us to do our jobs easier and safer, e- Gizmo decided to develop and launched the first Universal MCU Trainer. Unlike some of those mainstream MCU training kits, the e- Gizmo Training Kit is not attached to any particular type of microcontroller. It is known to be compatible with current MCU boards that include gizDuino, Zilog Encore, AVR ATMEGA8L, and Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC).In this project, the researchers should have the knowledge in programming, training experiments, as well as they should have the manipulation for the kits’ on board peripherals such as Relay and Motor Expander, Analog Voltage Sources, LM34 Temperature Sensor, 3 adjustable Voltage Sources, Digital to Analog DAC circuit, Switch Devices, Rotary Encoder Switch, 2 push button switches, 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix, Input and Output Expander, LED monitor, 2 Digit 7 segment LED display, Buzzer Circuit, Real Time Clock RTC, Alphanumeric LCD Display Unit, RS232 Interface Circuit, Power Supply Entry, Microcontroller Board Docking Port, and Breadboard.Project Objectives The main objective of this e- Gizmo Universal MCU kit is to test and learn the different kinds of application and peripherals on board. Moreover, the development of this microcontroller kit requires attaining the following: 1. ) To learn the programming languages use in microcontroller 2. ) To learn how to use the software through PC to the microcontroller 3. ) To learn the basic connection of the microcontroller to the MCU kit. 4. ) To study and familiarize the functions of the specific application use in the microcontroller 5. To learn how to connect or to know the relationship between the Input- Output or the application through the microcontroller Conceptual Framework The interrelation among the components of the microcontroller kit was shown as illustrate d in Figure 1. It represents the process on how the application and peripherals used in the trainer board works. In this kit, the researchers have used a microcontroller in gathering input from various applications, processing the input into a set of actions, and using the output mechanisms on the microcontroller to do something useful.The concept of the microcontroller kit was based on the need of creating convenient hardware designed for having knowledge and critical thinking for microcontroller widen. The diagram started with the input, followed by the process and the output. OUTPUT INPUT PROCESS RS 232 C INTERFACE 2 x 16 LCD DISPLAY BUZZER LED DRIVER OUTPUT EXPANDER RELAY STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER MICROCONTROLLER GIZDUINO AND PINGUINO 2 x 16 LCD DISPLAY REAL TIME CLOCK (RTC) INPUT EXPANDER 4 x 3 SWITCH EXPANDER PUSH BUTTON SWITCH ANALOG VOLTAGE OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SENSOR PROCESS GIZDUINO (USB CABLE) PINGUINO (UART MODE/USB CABLE)PERSONAL COMPUTER Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of e- G izmo Universal MCU Trainer The INPUT is comprises of 2 x 16 LCD Display, Real Time Clock (RTC), Input Expander, 4 x 3 Switch Matrix, Push Button Switch, Analog Voltage Output, and Temperature Sensor. LCD Display Module is tremendously popular low cost display device that can show user generated message in 2 lines x 16 alphanumeric format. Aside from 2 lines by 16 characters format, LCD modules are also available in 4 lines by 20 characters. A Real Time Clock (RTC) circuit serves as an electronic subsystem that keeps an accurate time and calendar.In addition, the next input is the Input Expander which has data out, since the host controller will be reading from U3 input port JP22. Furthermore, 4 x 3 Keypad matrix is also recognized as one of the input. The keypad used in this trainer consists of 12 push switches. The keypad switches are wired in 4 rows x 3 column arrangement. The Push Button Switches in the kit, which are S1 and S2, are held to logic 1 state by R2 and R3 when not pre ssed. There is also a well known device which is LM34 Temperature sensor U5 which gives an ambient temperature reading in analog Fahrenheit scale.After the Input, the figure shows the PROCESS which is comprises of Microcontroller Gizduino and Pinguino. Gizduino is ideal for beginner programmers and hobbyists because of its simplicity compared to other platforms. It is a multiplatform environment; it can run on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux. However, Pinguino is an Arduino for PIC user. Pinguino is also an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) which enables anyone to easily make an application on learning the program. Additionally, the program for both Gizduino and Pinguino is loaded to the Personal Computer which is also a major part of the process.Gizduino is programmable via USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable which makes it more accessible and allows communication to the computer. Pinguino, however uses UART mode through serial communication to PC. In addition, the OUTPUT include s RS 232 C Interface, 2 x 16 LCD Display, Buzzer, LED Driver, Output Expander, Relay, and Stepper Motor Driver. The RS 232 Interface allows the MCU UART to interface with RS 232 enabled devices. The function of the 2 x 16 LCD Display here in the output is the same as the input. For the 3rd output, the buzzer is used to indicate a warning or an alarm, a key closure or a machine function.The buzzer used in this trainer is essentially a small loudspeaker. With regards to the Output Expander, this trainer can have 8 outputs more using 5 or 6 MCU I/O. The Stepper Motor Drive subsection in the trainer can also be used to study and control stepper motor operations via user code. Significance of the Study The e- Gizmo Universal Microcontroller (MCU) Trainer was designed specifically for the benefits of the following: Electronic Designers. This trainer is intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and anyone interested in prototyping and programming a microcontroller.The Students. This kit aspires for the students to acquire basic knowledge on how microcontroller works and also aims for students to be familiar with prototyping platform based on easy to use hardware and software. The Academe. Professors on higher education can use this trainer to introduce the college students on how to program and manage microcontroller the fast and easy way. The Researchers. With the help of this MCU kit, the researchers were able to have background about the major component details of both Gizduino and Pinguino platform, its features, and manual application.They were able to manipulate peripherals on board through programming familiarity. Future Researchers. This can serve as a guide to those who wants to delve into microcontroller relevance, and those who wanted to have comparisons among the MCU trainers that has been developed. The study also provides the data and guiding material about the universal trainer function. Scope and Limitation Scope The e- Gizmo Universal MCU trainer r equires an external well regulated +5V to power the whole trainer board. Unlike any other microcontroller trainers, this is unique since it does not assign to any single microcontroller.With this trainer, we can use available boards such as gizDuino itself (atmega 168 or atmega 328 versions), AVR atmega8L experimenter board, Zilog z8F042A MCU board, PIC18F2550, and STM32F100C8 ARM Cortex M3 MCU board. The gizDuino’s platform kit that has been executed in this trainer is a single board AVR microcontroller platform based on highly popular Arduino design. It is a multiplatform environment as it can run on Macintosh, Linux and Windows. It is also programmable via USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable as mentioned earlier.Gizduino’s User Interface is USB Port, DC Jack, Reset Button, ICSP Port, and Shield Connection Port. The external Power Input ranges from 8V- 12 V while it needed 5 V for USB. The DC Power Output is at 3. 3 V with a frequency of 16 MHz and 12 MHz. It is being p rogrammed using Integrated Development Environment (IDE). Additionally, PIC18F2550 platform which has also been programmed has an Arduino compatible layout. It works on Arduino like software development platform based on open source Pinguino project. The e- Gizmo’s Pinguino is also compatible with gizDuino line of shields and has an external power supply of 8V- 12V.Its communication medium is UART mode, serial communication to PC. Different applications are also placed on this trainer such as Relay and Motor Expander, Analog Voltage Sources, LM34 Temperature Sensor, 3 adjustable Voltage Sources, Digital to Analog DAC circuit, Switch Devices, Rotary Encoder Switch, 2 push button switches, 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix, Input and Output Expander, LED monitor, 2 Digit 7 segment LED display, Buzzer Circuit, Real Time Clock RTC, Alphanumeric LCD Display Unit, RS232 Interface Circuit, Power Supply Entry, Microcontroller Board Docking Port, s well as Breadboard. Limitation Since +5V is employ ed to power the trainer board, using unqualified +5V power source may cause damage to the trainer. Most components on this kit, especially the microcontrollers are known to be sensitive to Electrostatic discharge (ESD). With this, ESD may damage the trainer if not handled properly. As discussed, Microcontroller Board Docking is where the MCU board is installed. This accepts gizDuino style MCU board. However, since Arduino boards do not have extended connectors, it disallows any shields from being installed on it.Herewith, a suitable adapter is required for us to be able to use the Arduino with the Universal MCU Trainer. It should also be noted that each microcontroller family has its own software development kit (SDK) and some may require a separate programming cable. Definition of Terms Microcontroller (MCU). It is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Gizduino. It is an open source computing platform based on a simple input/output (I/O) board and use of standard programming language and is a tool for implementing specific design.Pinguino. It is also an Arduino compatible platform which works on Arduino like software development platform. Arduino. A popular open-source single-board microcontroller, descendant of the open-source wiring platform, designed to make the process of using electronics in multidisciplinary projects more accessible. AtMega 328. This is the microcontroller that powers the gizDuino. Integrated Development Environment (IDE). This is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. Zilog Encore.This system-on-a-chip includes an integrated memory controller, interfaces such as Universal Serial Bus (USB), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). RS232 Interface. It’s a RS232C Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) level converter. LCD Display Module. A tremendous ly popular low cost display device that can show user generated messages in 2 lines x 16 alphanumeric characters format. Breadboard. It is used to easily build small circuits to work on in addition to the trainer module. Real Time Clock (RTC). Is an electronic subsystem that keeps an accurate time and calendar.Buzzer. It is an annunciator which provides cost effective audible feedback between the machine and the user. Light Emitting Diode (LED). Is a semiconductor diode that emits light when conducting current and is used in electrical equipment. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). It is a flat panel display, electronic visual display or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Multiplexing. A method used to rapidly switch two or more digits in synchronization with their corresponding segment drives (a-b-c-d-e-f-g). Input/Output Expander.This is used to serve 8 inputs and 8 outputs more using 5 or 6 microcontroller I/O. 4 x 3 Keypad Matrix. It is a small group of keys used to manually enter a data or a command while the microcontroller is running. Encoder Switch. Also known as rotary quadrature encoder switch, is a pure digital device that has the feel of an analog potentiometer. Push Button. An electrical switch operated by pressing a button, which closes or opens a circuit. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC). It is an interface device that will allow outputting an analog voltage based on a digital value.Analog Voltage Source. It provides both simulated and real analog voltage source which is used in Digital to Analog Converter. Stepper Motor Drive. This section in the trainer is used to control stepper motor operations via user code. Relay. Is an electrically operated switch, use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically and they are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low power signal. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART). It is the microchip with programming that controls a com puter's interface to its attached serial devices.

Gross Domestic Product

Lecture Notes on Measuring the Economy By: Melcah T. Pascua National Income Accounting The primary measure of the economy’s performance is its annual total output of goods and services or, as it is called, its aggregate output. Aggregate output is labeled Gross Domestic Product (GDP): the total market value of all final goods and services produced in a given year. Three approaches of computing GDP. 1. The Expenditure Approach (Output Approach) Personal Consumption Expenditure (C)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxxx Gross Private Domestic Investment (Ig)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. xxxxx Government Spending (G)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxxx Net Exports (Xn)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦.. †¦. xxxxx Gross Domestic Product †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxxxxx (C + Ig + G + Xn) 2. The Income Approach (Allocation or Earnings Approach) Compensation of Employees†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxx Rents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxxx Interest†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxxx Proprietor’s Income†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxxx Corporate Profits†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxx Corporate Income Taxes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ . xxxxx Dividends†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxxx Undistributed Corporate Profits†¦. xxxx National Income†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxxx Indirect Business Taxes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxxx Consumption of Fixed Capital†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxx Net Foreign Factor Income Earned in home country†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxx Gross Domestic Product †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxx 3. The Industry-Origin Approach (Value-Added Approach) Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxx Agriculture and forestry†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxx Fishing†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xxxx Industry†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxx   Mining and quarrying†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxx Manufacturing†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxx Construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxx Electricity, gas, and water†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxx Service sector†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxx Transport, storage  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxx Trade and repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles, personal and  household goods and communication†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxx Financial intermediation Real estate, renting and  business activities†¦. xxxx Public administration  and defense; compulsory social security†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. xxxx Other services†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xxxxGross Domestic Product †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Xxxx Other National Accounts: Net Domestic Product (NDP) NDP = GDP – Consumption of fixed capital (depreciation) National Income (NI) NI = NDP â €“ Net foreign factor income – Indirect Business Taxes Personal Income (PI) PI = NI – Corporate Income Taxes –Undistributed Corporate Profits – Social Security contributions + Transfer Payments Disposable Income (DI) = C+S DI = PI – Personal Taxes Where: C = Consumption S = Savings Nominal GDP vs. Real GDP Hypothetical Data of an Economy Year |Units of |Price per |Price |Unadjusted / |Adjusted / | | |Output |unit of |index |Nominal GDP |Real GDP | | | |output | | | | |1 |5 |10 | | | | |2 |7 |20 | | | | |3 |8 |25 | | | | |4 |10 |30 | | | | |5 |11 |28 | | | |Price of the current year Price Index = X 100 Price of the base year Nominal GDP =Price X Quantity Nominal GDP Real GDP = X 100 Price Index

Whats a Good PSAT Score for 2018

What's a Good PSAT Score for 2018 SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The 2018 PSAT is coming up in mid-to-late October,and scores should come out by mid-December. When you get your score report, you'll see a bunch of different kinds of scores, including your total score (out of 1520), your section scores (out of 760), and your Selection Index (out of 228). Sorting through all of this data to figure out what's a good PSAT score can be tricky, so we've written this guide to understanding your PSAT score report. We'll begin with a quick run-through of the different types of PSAT scores, then get into how you can figure out how your score compares to that of other students. Breakdown of PSAT Score Types When you first look at it, your PSAT score report might seem a bit intimidating. All the information in it is intended to help you, but it can be hard to figure out what it means and how well you did if you don't understand what each score type actually shows. PSAT score reports have six main kinds of data: scaled total scores, section scores, raw scores, subscores, Selection Index, and percentiles. Here’s a quick rundown of what all of these terms mean and what their ranges are: Scaled total score: Your total score on the PSAT, ranging between 320 and 1520. Half of your total score comes from Math and the other half comes from Evidence-based Reading and Writing (which is a combination of the Reading and Writing and Language sections). Scaled section scores: Two scores, one for Math and one for Evidence-based Reading and Writing. Both of these scores fall between 160 and 760. Section (test) scores: Three scores: one for Math, one for Reading, and one for Writing and Language. All section scores fall between 8 and 38. Subscores: Seven scores, each on a scale of 1 to 15. Subscores tell you how you did on certain types of questions, some of which appear across two or more sections of the PSAT. You’ll get a subscore for questions that fallinto these seven categories: Command of Evidence, Words in Context, Expression of Ideas, Standard English Conventions, Heart of Algebra, Problem Solving and Data Analysis, and Passport to Advanced Math. Raw scores: Three scores, one for each PSAT section, representing the number of questions you got right. The ranges for raw scores vary by section. You can get a maximum raw score of 48 for Math, 47 for Reading, and 44 for Writing and Language. Selection Index: One score that ranges from 48 to 228. Your selection index is the sum of your three section scores between 8 and 38 multiplied by 2: (Math section score + Reading section score + Writing section score) x 2 = Selection Index The National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) uses the Selection Index to determine whether test takers qualify as Commended Students or Semifinalists. Percentiles: Ranking of your performance compared to that of other test-takers. Percentiles tell you what percentage of other students you scored the same as or better than. If you score in the 80th percentile, then you scored the same as or better than 80% of other test-takers. There it is- all of the categories of data on your PSAT score report, explained. The next step is understanding what information in your score report matters the most for you. Out of all six kinds of data, which are the most important? Which PSAT Scores Are Most Important? All of the data on your PSAT score report is useful in one way or another, but the most important numbers are your scaled total score and scaled section scores. As you saw above, the highest you can score on the PSAT is 1520 overall or 760 on Math and 760 on Evidence-Based Reading and Writing. While as you take the test there are separately timed sections for Reading and Writing and Language, your scores on these sections are combined into one scaled section score (Evidence-Based Reading and Writing). As a result, your total PSAT score is 50% Math and 50% Evidence-Based Reading and Writing. Another piece of information that's important for students competing for a National Merit Scholarship is your Selection Index. To make sure students from across the country are represented in the National Merit Scholarship contest, the NMSC sets different cutoffs in each state to determine which students become Commended Scholars and which become Semifinalists. The top 1% of scorers in each state are named Semifinalists, who then apply to become Finalists and win scholarship money. As for the other score data on your score report? We recommend using your non-scaled section scores, raw scores, and subscores to get detailed insight into how you did on each section and question type on the PSAT. Understanding what kinds of PSAT questions you got wrong is especially helpfulwhen you go on to study for the SAT, as this understanding of your strengths and weaknesses as a test-taker can point you towards where you need to focus your studying. For example, having a higher Math score and a lower Evidence-Based Reading and Writing score indicates that you need to focus more on the Reading and Writing sections. This is fine, but still kind of broadthat's 2/3 of the test! However, if you go deeper into your score report by checking your raw scores and subscores, you might discover that what you really need to work on is a specific type of question in the Writing and Language section (e.g. Command of Evidence questions). Now that you have the tools to sort through your PSAT score report, let’s go back to our original, million-dollar question: what makes a good score on the PSAT? Read on to find out. What's a Good Score on the PSAT? What Does That Mean? Before we can answer thequestion of what a good score on the PSAT is, we need to define what we mean by a "good score."Since everyone has different goals for the PSAT, a good score for one student may be a disappointing score for another. To figure out what a good PSAT score is, let's consider a couple of different ways a score could be "good." First, we could define â€Å"good† as meaning that you scored better than 50% or more of other test-takers. Based on this definition, we can use percentiles to figure out what makes an above-average PSAT score. Second, we can define â€Å"good† PSAT scores as scores thatqualifyfor National Merit. Actually, qualifying for National Merit means that you got excellent, amazing, near-perfect PSAT scores. What the exact scores you should aim for to qualify for National Merit is something we'll talk about in a little bit. Finally, because the PSAT is very similar to the SAT, we can use the PSAT to determine whether or not you're on track to get the SAT scores you need for the colleges you want to apply to. Figuring this out means understanding what kinds of SAT scores colleges are looking for. Let’s start by considering PSAT percentiles. How do PSAT scores correspond to percentiles? Full Chart of PSAT Score Percentiles PSAT percentiles tell you how well you did in comparison to others who took the test. For instance, if your score is in the 81st percentile, you did as well as or better than 81% of test takers (and worse than 19% of test takers). The top percentile on the PSAT is the 99th percentile. However, you don’t need a perfect PSAT score to get into the 99th percentile. We don’t have percentile data yet for the October 2018 PSAT, but we can get an idea of what to expect by looking at percentiles from the 2017 PSAT. Here’s the full chart that shows how PSAT scaled section scores compare, usingpercentiles: PSAT Section Score Evidence-Based Reading and Writing Percentile Math Percentile 760 99+ 99+ 750 99+ 99 740 99 98 730 99 97 720 98 97 710 97 96 700 96 95 690 95 95 680 94 94 670 93 93 660 91 92 650 90 91 640 88 90 630 86 89 620 84 87 610 82 85 600 79 84 590 77 81 580 74 79 570 71 75 560 67 72 550 64 68 540 60 65 530 57 61 520 53 58 510 50 55 500 46 52 490 43 47 480 40 43 470 36 39 460 33 35 450 30 32 440 28 28 430 25 25 420 22 23 410 19 19 400 17 16 390 15 13 380 12 10 370 10 8 360 8 7 350 6 4 340 5 4 330 3 3 320 2 2 310 2 2 300 1 1 290 1 1 280 1 1 270 1- 1 260 1- 1- 250 1- 1- 240 1- 1- 230 1- 1- 220 1- 1- 210 1- 1- 200 1- 1- 190 1- 1- 180 1- 1- 170 1- 1- 160 1- 1- Via CollegeBoard.org As the chart above shows, percentiles are distributed slightly differently for Math and Evidence-based Reading and Writing, with Math being a little more competitive at most score levels. For example, an Evidence-Based Reading and Writing score of 730 ranks in the 99th percentile, whereas you’d need a 750 to get into the 99th percentile for Math. This difference shows that more students get higher scores in Math than they do in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (indicating that EBRW is in fact harder to do well on for most students). Using the PSAT percentile chart as a reference, we'll next discuss what you have to score in each section to get a "good" PSAT score (aka a score in a higher-than-average percentile). What Is a Good 2018 PSAT Score, Based on Percentiles? If we define a good PSAT score as a score that fewer than half of students get, we can use percentiles to figure out what exact score you'd need to rank higher than the majority of other test-takers. For the PSAT, to rank in the 50th percentile, you’d need at least a 510 in Reading and Writing and a 500 in Math. What if you want to rank in the 70th, 80th, 90th, or even 99th percentile? Here are the section scores you’d need to score as well as or higher than other students at those levels. Percentile Reading and Writing Score Math Score Composite Score 70% 570 560 1120 80% 610 590 1180 90% 650 640 1280 99% 730 750 1450 Oddly enough, you have to score slightly higher in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing than in Math to make it into the 70th, 80th, and 90th percentiles. To make it into the 99th percentile, though, you’d have to score 20 points higher in Math than in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing. If you’re a strong test-taker aiming for National Merit, then a good PSAT score for you will be one that qualifies you for Commended Student or Semifinalist. Read on to learn what is a good PSAT score for National Merit distinction. What’s a Good 2018 PSAT Score for National Merit? The National Merit Scholarship Corporation awards students who get top scores on the PSAT a couple of different titles. Students who score in the top third to fourth percentile of all PSAT test takers are named Commended Students, while students whose PSAT scores are in the top 1%ile are named Semifinalists. However, rather than relying on PSAT percentiles, NMSC uses students' Selection Index to determine which students qualify for which honor. Each state has its own Selection Index cutoff that students need to make to qualify for National Merit. Before we go through the cutoffs for each state, though, let's quickly review how to calculate your PSAT Selection Index. How Is the Selection Index Calculated? Once you know your 8-38 scale Math, Reading, and Writing and Language scores, you can easily calculate your Selection Index score. Simply add your section scores for Reading, Writing and Language, and Math together, and then multiply the entire sum by 2 to get your Selection Index Score. Let’s say you got a 37 in Reading, a 38 in Writing and Language, and a 31 in Math. Here’s how you would figure out your Selection Index. Section Score Sum x 2 Selection Index Score Reading 37 (37 + 38 + 31) x 2 = 212 Writing and Language 38 Math 31 By adding together and doubling your section scores, you get a Selection Index of 212. Does this score qualify you to be a National Merit Semifinalist? It depends on where in the U.S. you live. Keep reading for the full chart that shows the qualifying cutoff scores for National Merit in each state. Qualifying PSAT Scores for National Merit, State by State We've created a chart that shows the Selection Index score you need to qualify for Semifinalist in everystate. While NMSC doesn't release a full list of cutoffs, they will tell you what the score cutoff is for your state (if you took the PSAT as a junior that year). Because of this, the data in the chart below is crowdsourced from individuals across the country. If any of the cutoffs are wrong, let us know in the comments! You can also confirm your own state's Selection Index cutoff by calling NMSC at (847) 866-5100. Here’s the full list of state cutoffs to qualify for National Merit Semifinalist. State PSAT Cutoff for National Merit Semifinalist Alabama 216 Alaska 215 Arizona 220 Arkansas 214 California 223 Colorado 221 Connecticut 222 Delaware 222 DC 223 Florida 219 Georgia 220 Hawaii 220 Idaho 214 Illinois 221 Indiana 219 Iowa 216 Kansas 218 Kentucky 218 Louisiana 217 Maine 217 Maryland 223 Massachusetts 223 Michigan 219 Minnesota 220 Mississippi 215 Missouri 217 Montana 214 Nebraska 216 Nevada 218 New Hampshire 219 New Jersey 223 New Mexico 215 New York 221 North Carolina 220 North Dakota 212 Ohio 219 Oklahoma 215 Oregon 221 Pennsylvania 220 Rhode Island 220 South Carolina 216 South Dakota 215 Tennessee 219 Texas 221 Utah 215 Vermont 216 Virginia 222 Washington 222 West Virginia 212 Wisconsin 216 Wyoming 212 Average Score 218 On average, students need a Selection Index score of 218 to become National Merit Semifinalists. If you live in California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, or Washington, DC, then you need to meet the highest cutoff of 223 to qualify for National Merit. The highest possible Selection Index is 228, so getting a 223 or above requires getting at least a 37 (out of 38!) on all three PSAT sections. If you haven't taken the PSAT yet and are aiming for National Merit, I'd recommend aiming for a PSAT score that's at least two to five points higher than your state's cutoff on this list. The cutoffs can fluctuate a bit from year to year, depending on how students around the country do on the PSAT/NMSQT. Once you know what the Selection Index cutoff is for your state, how can you figure out what scores you need to qualify for National Merit? Your cutoff score for National Merit depends on what state you live in. How to Calculate Your Target Scores for National Merit If you haven't taken the PSAT yet and are aiming for National Merit, this section is for you. Earlier, you learned how to convert your PSAT section scores into the Selection Index. If you know what Selection Index you’re aiming for, all you need to do now is work backwardto figure out your target section scores. Remember how you needed to add your section scores together and then double that sum to get your Selection Index? Working backward just means dividing your Selection Index by two and then further splitting that quotient into three. Let’s say you live in North Dakota. To qualify for National Merit, students who took the PSAT in 2017 needed a Selection Index score of 212. To be on the safe side, you'll want to aim for at least a 216 as your target score (just in case the cutoff fluctuates). Our first step, then, is to divide 216 by 2. 216 / 2 = 108. Now you know that your section scores in Reading, Writing and Language, and Math need to add up to 108. You can also figure out what section score you need for each section (Math, Reading, and Writing and Language) by dividing 108 by three. 108 / 3 = 36 However, not everyone is equally strong at math and reading and writing. You might be able to aim a little higher in Math and a little lower in Reading and Writing and Language, or vice versa. As long as your section scores still add up to 108, you’ll still get a Selection Index of 216 and potentially qualify for National Merit. Once you understand what total section scores you need, you can adjust your target scores among the three PSAT sections however you want. Set realistic goals for yourself based on your own math, reading, and writing skills. Of course, only a small fraction of students who take the PSAT do so with the intent of becoming National Merit Semifinalists. And only 16,000 of the 1.6 million who take the PSAT will receive this distinction. Disappointed with your PSAT performance? Want to improve your PSAT score by 150 points? We have the industry's leading PSAT prep program. Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so you get the most effective prep possible. Check out our 5-day free trial today: We've already discussed how a good PSAT score could be one that is better than what most students get or one that qualifies you to become a National Merit Semifinalist. We'll now go into the third and final way of defining a good PSAT score, which is a score that shows you’re on track to achieving your SAT goals and getting into college. What Is a Good PSAT Score for College? Since the PSAT is extremely similar to the SAT, your performance on the PSAT can help predict your SAT score. Almost everyone's score goes up if they take these kinds of standardized tests more than once, sothe PSAT is a useful trial run. As a result, if you take the PSAT first you'll likely score higher on the SAT than you would if you hadn't taken the PSAT. You can use your PSAT score report to see your current scoring level and findout what skills you need to improve to hit your target SAT scores. To figure out your target SAT scores, you'll need to do some college research. Find schools that you’re interested in and look up the average SAT scores of accepted students. You can then use this information to set your own SAT score goals. Once you know what scores you need to get into your colleges of interest, you can use your PSAT score report to design a study plan. Use the data provided by section scores and subscores to pinpoint your strengths and weaknesses, then type yourself up a personalized SAT study plan that targets your weak areas. Depending on how much you want to improve, you can roughly predict how much time you'll need to set aside to prep. Here’s an estimate of how many hours you need to study to improve different increments on the SAT. 0-50 SAT composite (out of 1600) point improvement: 10 hours 50-100 point improvement: 20 hours 100-200 point improvement: 40 hours 200-300 point improvement: 80 hours 300-500 point improvement: 150 hours+ If you’re already scoring close to your target SAT scores on the PSAT, then you can feel satisfied with your PSAT scores. But if you fell short by a hundred points, then you need to kick your test prep into gear and devote several hours a week to getting ready for the SAT. Fortunately, if you have months to prepare and use that time effectively, you can definitely see a big improvement in both your skills as a test-taker and your SAT score. Your PSAT score report offers a useful starting point for your SAT prep. Whether or not you think you did well on the PSAT, you can still achieve a good score on the SAT with enough commitment. In closing, we'll go over the key points you need to remember about what a good score for the 2018 PSAT is. What SAT score do you need to be a good candidate for your dream school? Your PSAT scores can help you achieve your dream. 2018 PSAT Scores: Key Takeaways If you take the PSAT in 2018, you'll get your scores back mid-December. The score report you get might be confusing at first, but you now know what PSAT scaled scores, section scores, and subscores mean (and you can always use this article as a refresher if you forget!). Students aiming for National Merit should also check Selection Index score to see if it's above past years' qualifying scores for their state. Everyone has their own definition for what is aâ€Å"good† PSAT score. For example, what you might think a good score could simply be one that's higher than most other students' scores. In that case, you can use percentiles to figure out what makes a good score on the PSAT. If you’re a high-achieving student who has spent time prepping for the PSAT, then a good score for you might mean receiving National Merit distinction. National Merit is extremely competitive and only top scorers across the country get named Commended Scholars and Semifinalists. Before taking the PSAT, you should use the Selection Index cutoff for your state to set your PSAT score goals. Finally, scoring well on the PSAT can inform how you prep for the SAT. You can set a PSAT score goal based on the SAT score you'll need for your eventual college applications. If you make it, then great; if not, you'll then know you need to put in more time prepping for the SAT to get into the sweet spot for the colleges you want to apply to. Taking the PSAT can tell you about your strong and weak areas (which you can use for the PSAT prep) as well as qualifying you as a National Merit Semifinalist. In the end, you should decide what a good PSAT score for you is based on your personal goals and plans. What’s Next? Once you're named a National Merit Semifinalist, what's the next step? Find out how to move on in the competition and win scholarship money with our complete guide on how to become a National Merit Finalist. How does the PSAT differ from the SAT? Should you prep for both at once or one at a time? Learn more about the similarities and differences between the PSAT and SAT here. How much time do you need to set aside to get a killer SAT score? We advise you how much ahead of time to start prepping and how long you need to study for the SAT. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

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